CIS 2-2
I. Digitization
A. Analogue and digital: bits and atoms
1. Digitization of information; try to explain. Ones and zeros.
a. Information in nature is analogue. Thermometer, scale, clock.
b. All information reduced to a construction of ones and zeros
c. Fax and email, record and CD
2. The best way to appreciate the merits and consequences of being digital is to reflect on the difference between bits and atoms. While we are undoubtedly in an information age, most information is delivered to us in the form of atoms: newspapers, magazines, and books (like this one)
a. What can I do with a newspaper? What can I do with the same information on the Internet?
b. Key aspects:
(1) Replicability — flawless copies
(2) Duplicability — make a million copies
(3) Manipulability — move through different forms
(4) Transferability — send it around the world in different forms
3. The information superhighway is about the global movement of weightless bits at the speed of light. As one industry after another looks at itself in the mirror and asks about its future in a digital world, that future is driven almost 100 percent by the ability of that company's product or services to be rendered in digital form.
a. Which industries will change the most? Which the least?
b. Blockbuster. Countervailing tendencies here?
(1) Late fees
c. Electronic books. Pros and cons.
4. Still common: bits on atoms. CDs, CD-ROMS, Video cassettes, books. Why should this change? Why shouldn’t it?
B. Free movement of digital information between different media
a. MP3 here.Digital Convergence
C. The Info-Communications revolution involves the digital convergence of three key technologies: computing, telecommunications and broadcasting, and is characterized by the incredibly rapid decline in costs of key factors of information processing and communication, in particular computing power and the transmission of digital information, both through fiber and wireless.
II. MP3 example:
A. Audio codecs: mpeg layer 3
1. Lossy reduction of wav format
2. Bit rate issue
B. Process:
1. Ripping
2. Encoding
3. Transferring
C. Opposite:
1. Decoding
2. Burning
III. Birth of the PC
A. IBM definitely did not have it in its self-interest in 1970's to develop PC.
1. * Issue here: social implementation of technology must occur within a specific institutional context. Organizations and individuals must see development of the new technology as in their interest.
2. Profitability based on servicing mainframes, creating customized software.
3. Extremely high profit margins
4. Others were “IBM clones” of another kind.
5. IBM execs were not the kind of people who’d be interested in PCs
a. Its customer base was also not kind that would go to PC
6. Issue of vision, social conceptualization: could not derive PC from microprocessor. (Actually, neither did Intel, originally).
7. Reminder issue here is distributive revolution: in whose interest is radical decentralization of computer power? Answer: the socially marginalized.
IV. Central role of nerds, enamored of the “cool idea”
A. User group that saw potential for micro-computer: computer hobbyists supported by disaffected mainframe programmers
1. Supported development during period when there were no “practical” applications
2. With one key exception—Bill Gates—did not see commercial potential, were not in it for the money.
B. Emergence of early micro-computer culture
1. Link: Timeline
2. December, 1974: Popular Electronics publishes an article by MITS (Ed Roberts) announcing the Altair 8800 computer for US$439 in kit form. It uses the Intel 8080 processor. The Altair pictured on the cover of the magazine is actually a mock-up, as an actual computer was not available.
3. February, 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen move to Albuquerque,
4. March, 1975, Fred Moore and Gordon French hold the first meeting of a new microcomputer hobbyist's club in French's garage, in Menlo Park, California. 32 people meet, including Bob Albrect, Steve Dompier, Lee Felsenstein, Bob Marsh, Tom Pittman, Marty Spergel, Alan Baum, and Steven Wozniak. Bob Albrect shows off an Altair, and Steve Dompier reports on MITS, and how they had 4000 orders for the Altair. Becomes Homenbrew Computer Club.
5. April: Gates and Allen officially form “Micro-soft”
6. 1976, April 1: Apple Computer Company is formed.
7. April, 1977, Apple introduces the Apple II at West Coast Computer Faire
a. First “killer app,” Visi-Calc, also introduced.
V. The real historical and social realization of Moore’s Law
A. Why did social position of executives at IBM and HP make it impossible for them to see emergence of PC?
1. Structural position
2. What would you use it for? I’ve got a secretary.
B. Motivation of early pioneers
1. Material?
2. Cultural/ideal: the “cool idea”
3. Status, power, recognition
C. Early adapters: first group: Altair customers. On social margins
1. Motivation: autonomy, curiosity
2. Jobs, Gates: looking beyond the jokes
3. Woz: We’re working harder than our fathers. Why?
D. April 1976: West Coast Computer Faire:
1. Introduction of Apple II: first micro-computer to reach beyond hobbyist audience.
2. Same year development of first “killer app:” Visicalc.
E. 1979: Apple sells 35,000 computers for total of 50,000.
VI. Pirates:
A. Innovation and invention: Jobs and Xerox PARC
1. Great artists steal
B. Gates and IBM:
1. July 1980: Microsoft meets with IBM re project Chess in Boca Raton
2. Paul Allen buys DOS from Seattle Computer Company
C. Apple and Microsoft: Mac to Windows